Karataş, Ali İhsan; Kaya, Muhammed Talha; Hasanov, Nariman

The Russian Empire sought to control the Caucasus from the eighteenth century as part of its expansionist policy in Asia and Europe. However, this effort resulted in significant human, economic and temporal losses, delaying Russia's expansion. Scholars have since examined the prolonged war and heavy casualties in the region. The Caucasian struggle for independence has generally been portrayed in the literature as the Muridism movement or a mystical-fanatical ideology, a characterization that has persisted to the present day. However, this approach overshadows the military and political achievements of the Caucasians. Moreover, this widely accepted yet scientifically unsubstantiated notion has led to research being built on a weak and unfounded basis. This study examines primary sources chronologically and comparatively using document and content analysis. As a result, no evidence was found to support the claim that a radical or fanatical movement emerged during the nineteenth-century Caucasian struggle against the Russian Empire.

Mukasheva, Zarina; Akhmedyanova, Dana; Nogayeva, Ainur

This article examines the extent of divergence between a binary opposition of Central Asian local versus Western outlets by expanding the focus and incorporating four categories of media, such as local state-controlled, local independent, Western critical and Western liberal-pragmatic. Drawing on quantitative and qualitative content analysis of news coverage from 2018 to 2023, the study identifies both convergences and discrepancies across these groups. The study argues that media outlets emphasize certain issue areas while marginalizing others, thereby exposing structural biases in how regional relations are represented. The results show that while state-controlled media dominate visibility by promoting selectively positive narratives of cooperation, independent outlets introduce limited but crucial pluralism, and Western media, both critical and liberal-pragmatic, amplify risk-oriented framings, together producing a structurally biased and fragmented representation of Central Asian regional relations. Such divergences not only shape local and Western perceptions of Central Asia but also contribute to the construction of competing narratives about the region’s political trajectory, economic development, and cultural identity and highlights the need for media plurality in Central Asia.