The P2X7 receptor/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling axis in sepsis: molecular mechanisms, organ-specific pathophysiology, and emerging therapeutic strategies

Sepsis remains a leading cause of mortality in intensive care units worldwide, representing life-threatening organ dysfunction arising from dysregulated host responses to infection. The purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) and the NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome have emerged as critical regulators of inflammatory responses during sepsis pathogenesis. Extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), released as a danger-associated molecular pattern from damaged and dying cells, activates the P2X7R, triggering potassium efflux that serves as the cardinal signal for NLRP3 inflammasome assembly. The activated inflammasome complex mediates caspase-1-dependent proteolytic maturation of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18, while simultaneously inducing gasdermin D (GSDMD)-mediated pyroptotic cell death—an inflammatory form of programmed cell death characterized by membrane pore formation, cellular swelling, and release of intracellular contents. Paradoxically, emerging evidence indicates that excessive P2X7R activation during sepsis progression induces profound mitochondrial dysfunction in circulating monocytes, leading to impaired NLRP3 inflammasome function and a state of immunoparalysis that coincides with an increased mortality. This comprehensive review examines the molecular mechanisms governing P2X7/NLRP3 signaling in sepsis; critically evaluates its dual and seemingly contradictory roles in hyperinflammation versus immunosuppression; delineates organ-specific manifestations across the lung, kidney, heart, brain, liver, and intestine; and systematically evaluates emerging therapeutic strategies including direct NLRP3 inhibitors such as MCC950, selective P2X7R antagonists, IL-1 receptor blockade, GSDMD inhibitors, and natural compounds with inflammasome-modulating properties. Understanding the temporal dynamics of this signaling axis is crucial for developing precision-targeted interventions that appropriately balance pathogen clearance with prevention of excessive inflammatory tissue damage. © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2026.