Integrated Emission and Cost Analysis of Battery-Electric Vehicles up to 2035

This study quantifies when battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) reach total cost of ownership (TCO) parity with their internal-com-bustion counterparts and characterises the cradle-to-grave greenhouse-gas (GHG) intensity trajectory to 2035. Our contribution is a transparent, Python-based framework that integrates battery-cost learning, ownership economics and life-cycle impacts within a harmonised scenario set, and links them to policy timing, ISO 15118-20-ready bidirectional charging and power-system carbon intensity. Drawing on a systematic synthesis of 221 peer-reviewed sources (2013–2025), the model runs annually for a representa-tive C-segment BEV across three scenarios (Reference, Fast-Progress, Slow-Progress; 2024–2035). The results indicate that, under the median battery-pack price learning trajectory, BEV TCO falls below the ICE benchmark around 2029 (2028–2032 across sce-narios), while life-cycle GHG intensity declines from approximately 73 to 34 g CO2-eq km-1 by 2035, spanning 29–42 g km-1 depending on grid decarbonisation. Global sensitivity analysis identifies battery price as the principal driver of TCO outcomes and grid carbon intensity as the principal driver of emissions outcomes. Results are reported for three regional aggregates (OECD average, EU-27 and China), and the policy discussion highlights contrasts for the United States to contextualise cross-market dif-ferences. Policy alignment on three fronts—parity-linked purchase-incentive phase-outs, rapid deployment of ISO 15118-20-ready bidirectional charging, and stronger recycled-content targets—shortens time to cost competitiveness and amplifies the climate ben-efits of large-scale electrification. © 2025, Engineering Perspective. All rights reserved.