Kandemir, Fatih

The aim of this study is to discuss the functional value of tawakkul in terms of individual psychology in the light of scientific studies. As known, tawakkul is an important concept on which the Qur'an and Sunnah have emphasized. In this regard, tawakkul, which is a religious value, is expected to have an important function for the individual in his work and actions. However, it is seen that tawakkul, which is fostered by religious sources, is far from its functional value that has been expressed in time. This situation often brings with it the questioning of this concept. Because this concept, which is based on religion, is expected to have a positive function for the individual, but on the contrary, it is known that it produces the opposite function for some individuals. It is possible to say that many factors are effective in the fact that tawakkul has such a function. However, due to the limitations of the study, it is not possible to discuss all these factors here. However, it can be stated that a false perception of destiny is a very strong factor in the development of individuals' belief in tawakkul contrary to the essence of religion. Thus, it is possible to say that the false understanding of tawakkul, which is also expressed as a kind of fatalism, develops and takes root. It is almost inevitable for this situation to lead the individual to a behavior contrary to the religious teachings, neglecting the principle of after fulfilling the reasons, one of the most important elements of tawakkul. Despite this, it is known that tawakkul still has many functional values in accordance with the essence of religion for the believer. In this context, five basic functions of tawakkul were examined in this study. In this context, first, the subject of Tawakkul as the Manifestation of Confidence in Allah was examined. At this point, it is emphasized that religion, which has the function of satisfying the individual emotionally, should cooperate with trust, as well as with many emotions in the emotional spectrum, in order to produce this function. It is possible to say that tawakkul has a very close relationship with this feeling because of the strong relationship between trust and faith. Because the feeling of trust in Allah creates expectations based on trust in people, it is possible to say that the level of trust of the individual who is fed by this feeling will also increase. The second, the function of tawakkul was examined under the title of Tawakkul as a Positive and Cognitive Re-evaluation Tool. In this context, it is emphasized that it is inevitable for a person to encounter positive life events as well as negative life events as a necessity of his existence. Afterward, it has been mentioned that this bipolar structure of existence causes the person to experience negative emotions as well as positive ones. At this point, after subjecting the situation to a positive and cognitive re-evaluation process, the individual who has tawakkul takes the strength from the verse "God only obliges a person to do what he can do" (al-Baqara, 2/286) and transfers the result to Allah, is likely to do so. The third, the function of tawakkul is discussed under the title of Tawakkul as a Means of Making Sense of the Background of Events. In this context, the attitude that an individual will adopt if the work he has entrusted to God outwardly produces a result against him: "It may be that something is good for you, but you do not tolerate it. It also happens that when something is bad for you, you love it. Allah knows, you do not know” (al-Baqara, 2/216). Accordingly, thanks to the awareness of tawakkul fostered by this and similar verses, it becomes very easy for the individual to accept negative situations without questioning too much and thus to make sense of the background of the event. The fourth, the function of tawakkul is examined under the title of Tawakkul as a Means of Spiritual Development. In this context, it has been pointed out that tawakkul has an important function for the spiritual development that religion has presented to him on the basis of meaning and purpose, aside from escaping from the troubles experienced by the individual. The last, the function of tawakkul mentioned in the study was examined in the context of Tawakkul as a Mental Shelter. Accordingly, tawakkul, which means an individual's relyıng on Allah, is an individual's action with the awareness that the only being with power and strength is Allah. Thus, an individual who is aware of his own helplessness is expected to rely on Allah, which he sees as a safe mental shelter, by trusting in Allah in all matters, by showing sincere consent and submission to His will. Based on all these, it is aimed that this study, which was made by making use of primary and secondary sources, contributes to the understanding of the functional value of tawakkul, which is fostered by religious belief.

Tastekin, Osman

Bu çalışmanın amacı, Kur’ân’ın bizzat kendi terminolojisi içinde yer alan infak kavramının sosyal yardımlaşma ve dayanışma noktasındaki işlevini ortaya koymaktır. Geçmişten günü- müze yaşanan toplumsal problemlerden biri yoksulluktur. Toplumdan topluma farklı ölçütler dikkate alınarak değerlendirilse de yoksulluk genel anlamda, asgari hayat standartlarının al- tında olma durumunu ifade etmektedir. Maalesef beslenme, barınma, eğitim, sağlık hatta su gibi temel biyolojik ve sosyal ihtiyaçlarını karşılayamayan milyonlarca insan yaşam mücade- lesi vermektedir. Bu insanlık adına utanç verici bir durumdur. Söz konusu sefalet ve fakirliğin azaltılması yolunda uluslararası yardım kuruluşları yanında ulusal yardım kuruluşları da fa- aliyetler yürütmektedirler. Ancak küreselleşme, gelir dağılımındaki dengesizlik, işsizlik, nü- fus artışı, ekonomik krizler, yetersiz sosyal güvenlik sistemleri, savaş gibi sosyoekonomik ve yapısal sorunlara bağlı olarak yoksulluk, her geçen gün biraz daha artmakta ve çözülmeyi bekleyen toplumsal bir problem olarak önemini korumaktadır. Semavi dinlerin sonuncusu İslam ve onun buyruklarını içeren kutsal kitabı Kur’an, ‘infak’ kavramı bağlamında sosyal yar- dımlaşma ve dayanışmaya oldukça önem vermekte, müminlere sosyal hayatın düzenlenmesi noktasında sorumluluklar yüklemektedir. İnfak, Kur’an’da Allah yolundaki tüm harcamaları ve yardımlaşmayı içeren bir çatı kavramdır ve müminlerin temel özellikleri arasında yer al- maktadır. Zekât ve sadaka gibi diğer yardımlaşma türlerini de içine alan infak ibadeti, kişinin sahip olduğu maddi değerleri kendisinden daha kötü durumda olan kimselerle paylaşmasına imkân tanımaktadır. Böylece insanlar arası ilişkilerin dolayısıyla toplumun ıslahı ve huzuru hedeflenmektedir. Diğer bir ifadeyle infak, sosyal adaletsizliği yani toplum içerisindeki eko- nomik ve sosyal eşitsizliklerin giderilmesini, ekonomik açıdan güçsüz insanları yaşamın zor şartlarına karşı korumayı dolayısıyla toplum içerisindeki ekonomik ve sosyal dengeyi sağla- mayı amaçlamaktadır. Muhtaç insanların yaralarına merhem olma neticesinde hissedilecek olan manevi huzur kişilerin bencilce duygulardan kurtulmasının, ruhsal açıdan daha sağlıklı bireyler olmasının yolunu açacaktır. Sağlıklı ruh yapısına sahip bireyler ise diğer insanlarla ilişkilerini daha insani düzeyde gerçekleştirebileceklerdir. Kardeşlik ve güven duygusunun oluşmasında infakın önemli bir rol oynayacağı açıktır. Varlığını yoksul insanlarla paylaşan bir kişinin serveti, muhtaç insanlarca meşru kabul edilecektir. Böylelikle kıskançlık, çekememez- lik, kin, zorbalık, düşmanlık ve benzeri duygulardan kurtulan yoksul kişiler, kendilerinden daha iyi durumda olanlara karşı kardeşlik ve minnet hisleri besleyeceklerdir. Toplum içinde, özellikle günümüzde daha sık gündeme gelen hırsızlık, gasp, kapkaççılık ve benzeri hadisele- rin önemli nedenlerinden biri de ekonomik şartların yetersizliğidir. Yoksul ülkelerde bu tür olayların gelişmiş ülkelere nispetle daha fazla yaşandığı düşünülürse maddi ihtiyaçların gide- rilmesinde infak olgusunun anlamı ziyadesiyle anlaşılacaktır. Basit hayati ihtiyaçlar, sonu ci- nayetle biten hadiselerin baş nedeni olabilmektedir. Kur’an’ın, yardımlaşma anlayışına ilahi bir çözüm olarak sunduğu infak, toplum içinde korku ve infial oluşturacak bu tür hadiselerin önüne geçmekte etkili olacaktır. Ayrıca İnfakın yapılabilmesi için belli bir ekonomik düzeyin şart koşulmaması, toplum içinde farklı düzeylerde imkânlara sahip tüm kişileri aktif olarak yardımlaşma sürecine katacaktır. Zira her bir birey kendisinden daha kötü durumda olan bir başka kişiye yardımcı olmak ve bir ihtiyacını gidermek gayreti içinde olacağından bireyler arası güven pekişecek ve yardımlaşma çemberi genişleyecektir. Kur’an, insanoğlunun sahip olduğunu zannettiği her şeyin gerçekte Allah’a ait olduğunu bildirmektedir. İnsan, servetin, mal ve mülkün dünya hayatındaki emanetçisidir. Allah dilediği kullarına dilediği kadar rızık vermiştir. Zengin, sahip olduklarını muhtaç kişilerle paylaşmak sorumluluğunu taşırken, yok- sul kişi durumuna sabredip rızkını helal yoldan temin için çaba harcamakla yükümlüdür. An- cak infak ibadeti, Allah rızasını kazanmaya yönelik olmadığı sürece ilahi anlamda bir değeri yoktur. İnsanların farklı ekonomik düzeylerde olmalarının temel nedeni hem muhtaç olanla- rın hem de varlıklı olanların sınava tabi tutulmalarıdır. Böylece sosyal birlik ve beraberliğin tesisi yanında ahirete yönelik kazanımlar elde edilmiş olmaktadır. İnfak karşılığında elde edi- lecek maddi ve manevi kazancın garantörlüğünü bizatihi Allah üstlenmektedir.

Taştekin, Osman

The purpose of this study is to reveal the function of the concept of Infāq, which is included in the terminology of the Qurʾān itself, in social assistance and solidarity. Poverty has always been one of the social problems from past to present. Although it is analyzed dif-ferently in each society via different criteria, poverty generally refers to the condition in which a person lacks the basic necessities for a minimum living standard. Unfortunately, mil-lions of people starve for basic biological and social needs such as nutrition, shelter, educa-tion, health, and even water. This is a shame for the humanity. There are both international and national charities working to reduce the misery and poverty. However, due to socio-eco-nomic and structural problems such as globalization, disproportion in income distribution, unemployment, overpopulation, economic crises, lack of social security systems, and wars, poverty rises gradually and it is still one of the major social problems needed to be solved. Islam which is the last one of Abrahamic religions and its holy book Qurʾān consider social cooperation and solidarity pretty important within the context of Infāq and hold the believers responsible for the organization of social life. Infāq is an umbrella concept in the Qurʾān, re-ferring to all expenses and cooperation in the name of Allah and it is one of the main qualities of believers. Infāq, which includes other forms of cooperation such as obligatoryalms (zakāt) and charity (ṣadaqā), enables a person to share his tangible values with those who have worse life conditions than himself. In this way, the Quran aims to promote human relations and thereby enhancement and peace in the society. In other words, Infāq aims to eliminate social injustice which refers to social and economic inequalities, to protect the economically weak people against the difficulties in life, and thereby, to maintain economic and social stability. Helping the needy is a powerful path toward having spiritual peace, removing selfish feelings, and keeping emotional wellbeing. People with good mental health will be able to build more humane relationships with others. It is obvious that Infāq would play an important role in-building a sense of fellowship and trust. A wealth of person who shares his wealth with the poor will be deemed legitimate by the needy people. Thus, the needy people would be freed from negative feelings and behaviors such as jealousy, incapacity, hatred, bullying, and hos-tility, and feel a sense of fellowship and gratitude towards those who have better life condi-tions. One of the most important reasons for robbery, extortion, purse-snatching, and etc., which are currently occurring more frequently, is economic deprivation. Considering the fact that this kind of incidents takes place more frequently in poor countries than developed ones, it is obvious that Infāq has a strategic role in fulfilling the basic needs of the needy. Poverty might be linked to violence, which might end up with murder. Infāq which is divine coopera-tion approach would take an important role in fighting against criminal incidents that cause fear and indignation. Moreover, the Quran does not specify any certain economic condition to be able to do Infāq, and thereby, it makes people with various economic abilities become a part of the social cooperation. As everyone would take care of people who are relatively worse off, interindividual trust will be strengthen and circle of cooperation will be expanded. Ac-cording to the Qurʾān, people’s all goods and possessions actually belong to Allah. People are just the trustees of this wealth. Allah grants as much wealth as He wills to whomever He wills. While the rich is responsible for sharing their wealth with the needy, the poor is responsible for bearing the troubles caused by poverty with patience and endeavoring to make money in a halal way. Unless Infāq is done in order to please Allah, it does not have any significance in the presence of Allah. The reason why people have different material living conditions is that both the poor and the rich are subject to test. Thus, they would get rewards for hereafter besides the sustaining of social unity and solidarity. Allah is the only warrantor of the tangible and spiritual wealth gained in return for Infāq.

Güldaş, Fatümetül Zehra

Psychological and subjective well-being depends on how an individual feels about his/her life and how he/she responds to life events. Individually, the person may uncon-sciously feel all external events occurring beyond his/her control in his cognitive schemas. Especially considering mental health, the influence of religious beliefs and practices on vari-ous components of mental well-being has emerged as one of the most studied topics in the psychology of religion in recent years. Most studies have focused on the role of religion in seeking answers about individuals' search for meaning and their reactions to life events. There is a prevalent finding that prayer plays a constructive role in the lives of individuals faced with life’s difficulties and exposed to stressors. Thus, for scientists over the past few decades, the possible application of the cognitive behavioral framework within the psychol-ogy of religion has become a key element of both subjective and psychological well-being. Using theoretical applications as to the relationship between religiosity and mental health, it was appeared that various prayer measures are predominantly derived from Christian reli-gious norms and beliefs. However, non-Christian religions have been mostly disregarded in such inquiries. More specifically, the links between religiosity and mental health among Mus-lim individuals have been neglected even though there are several forms of religious behavior in Islam that are of great importance to the daily lives of believers. Therefore, the current research aims to investigate the link between different types of Islamic prayer and indicators of well-being using the cognitive-behavioral mechanism among Muslim individuals. An online link was used to recruit participants from many Islamic student communities and several worship places in different cities/regions of England in this study. The online questionnaire composed of six prayer types (obligatory, necessary, voluntarily, supererogatory, supplica-tion, and invocation prayers), six psychological well-being domains (autonomy, environmen-tal mastery, positive relations with others, personal growth, self-acceptance, and purpose in life), and two subjective well-being domains (life satisfaction, and positive and negative af-fects). The representative sample consisted of 214 participants (female= 145, male= 69), aged between 18 and 66 (M = 27.01, SD = 8.80). The results of the correlational analysis indicated that obligatory (fard) prayer, voluntarily (sunna) prayer, supplication (duʿāʾ) prayer and invocation (dhikr/remembrance of God) prayer have positive relationship with the well-being variables, while no correlation of necessary (wājib) prayer and supereroga-tory (nawāfil) prayer with any of the well-being variables is appeared. The results of the mul-tiple regression analysis showed that obligatory, voluntarily, and necessary prayers were not predictors of psychological or subjective well-being variables. Although only the type of su-pererogatory prayer was found to be predictive, the relationship was in the opposite direc-tion. In addition, the supplication prayer accounted for the unique variance in predicting the psychological well-being scores, while the invocation prayer accounted for the unique vari-ance in predicting subjective well-being. In light of James and Wells’ cognitive and behavioral models, the present study has identified only the types of supplication and invocation prayer as important factors that have a positive effect for individuals in providing psychological sup-port for them. Therefore, the presented data suggest that people are more like to have better psychological and subjective well-being when their prayers take the form of a supplication prayer and invocation prayer in which they rely on God for guidance and support and refresh their thinking through feeling God’s presence. As can be seen from the present findings, it is important to consider the applicability of belief structures in specific community settings. Here, both the theoretical framework and practical direction can contribute to an understand-ing being held as to the relationship between Muslim prayer types and mental well-being and provides guidance for health practitioners regarding how different prayer models can lead individuals to have better well-being.

Hayat, Zeynelabidin

The paper deals with Forward exchange contracts and Swap exchange contracts, These two types of contracts are among the most prominent types of financial derivative contracts that arose after the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971 or the so-called Nixon shock, where the convertibility of the dollar into gold was stoped, which led to turmoil in the exchange rates of the currencies of many countries and the emergence of the need to stabilize the exchange rate Currencies in transactions where the delivery of the two exchanges is delayed. This research has studied forward exchange contracts and swap exchange contracts in four sections. The first section defines the Forward exchange contract, which is a contract in which the two parties commit to exchange a specified amount of foreign currencies on a forward date, at a price agreed upon in advance. The elements and elements that must be mentioned in this contract, such as the seller and buyer, the size of the contract, the date of delivery and the forward exchange rate, were mentioned in this section, with an illustrative example of the mechanism of conducting this contract. In addition to addressing the differences between forward exchange contracts and future exchange contracts, the characteristics of forward exchange contracts and the purposes of those dealing with them from hedging and speculation are mentioned in this section. The second section has been devoted to the definition of swap exchange contracts, it is for the two parties to the contract to agree that one of them buys from the other a specific amount of a currency in exchange for a specific amount of another currency and at the current exchange rate, provided that the two exchanges are delivered immediately, and in the same contract, the two parties agree to make a forward reverse exchange contract, at a price determined within Contract, and to clarify the picture of swap exchange contracts, an example has been given to illustrate the mechanism for conducting this type of contract. In the third section, the views of contemporaries scholars regarding the İslamic law of the forward exchange contract were discussed, where the opinion of the objectors was mentioned at all and the evidence they inferred from it. And then the opinion of those who advocate the permissibility of forward exchange contracts that are in the form of a dating that is not binding on both parties together, provided that there is nothing in the dating that indicates that it is a contract of sale and provided that a new contract is delivered independent of the dating. Then I discussed the opinion and evidence of the impediments in four points, and I concluded that the most correct opinion at the first is the impermissibility of the forward exchange contract in the form such as the traditional banks do it because of the deception it contains. But I recanted and permitted this type of contract in two cases, the first: the case of need with the absence of an alternative, and the second: the case that transaction is not binding dating for both parties and on some terms. Some contemporary scholars suggested conducting buying and selling operations in the same currency as an alternative to forward exchange contracts, and some of them suggested that Islamic banks should have a common unit of account to settle accounts between the parties to commercial transactions. But in my opinion two solutions are often not feasible. As for the fourth section, I dealt with the opinions of contemporary scholars in the swap exchange contract. it seems likely to me that swap currency exchange contracts are nothing but a usurious loan that is prohibited by Sharia. Because when examining the mechanism of conducting this type of contract, it turns out that one of the parties lent the other an amount in one currency in exchange for the other lending him an amount in another currency under the name of the spot exchange contract. Since one of the two parties requires the other to increase what he lent - if the exchange rate of the Forward exchange contract is different from the Spot exchange rate, which is predominant - under the name of the Forward exchange contract, then this process is nothing but a usurious loan. I supported the proposal to exchange loans in different currencies as a İslamic alternative to transaction contracts, provided that there is no preference for one party over another, and there is no usurious increase. And in order to solve the problem of the high rate of currency inflation of one of the two loans more than the other, the researcher suggested adding the inflation rate to the two loans when they are performed

Taştekin, Osman

The main purpose of this study is to become acquainted with the educational insti-tutions in Ottoman Empire during and after the 18th century. In this respect, special attention is given to which initiatives were taken in terms of education and which educational institu-tions were established during the aforementioned period. The need to comply with the West in terms of science, culture, reasoning, and technological advancements has led to the ques-tioning of the current madrasah system. Upon revising the educational system of the mad-rasah, which had difficulties in being productive and attaining to the necessities of the time, there have been initiatives primarily to establish and structure military schools. These at-tempts to reform education was intensively seen as from the early 18th century. The above-mentioned changes and progress have gained momentum with the Tanzimat era. It was ob-served that during this period, many schools were established beyond military; education levels were clarified and; females were given right to study. Similar to Tanzimat era during the first Constitutional Monarchy and Autocracy eras, positive contributions toward educa-tional reforms were made. However, beginning from the middle of the second Constitutional Monarchy era, the economic and social complications that the state was going through had a negative impact on the educational system and the practicality of the educational institutions. Summary: Education has been the most important factor in determining the social, economic, and cultural level of a society. The level of development, which is the determinant of the su-periority of the nations to each other over the world, varies according to the importance given to education. To be a pioneer in the scientific sense, to be able to have technological opportu-nities, to make people live more comfortable and peaceful, to have more power in the eco-nomic field and to ensure the continuity of the nation that depending on all these, it will be possible with the understanding of education that can read the time and future well. The fact that world states are superior to each other in different periods of history is directly related to their understanding of education. It can be said that in the centuries following the begin-ning of the new age, especially the Western nations have taken a more positive step at this subject. The changes in both mental and action spheres such as XVI. century Renaissance movements, XVIII. century enlightenment movement and finally the industrial revolution triggered the development in the scientific and technological field. In these periods the im-portance given to thinking and the freedom of thought has been the main factor of the pro-gress in the scientific field. The European nations, which went beyond their religion-based bigotry and prioritized the free and secular understanding, have become superior to other nations of the world. However, it is not quite possible to say that in the same periods the Ot-toman Empire was able to adapt with the same speed to such accelerations of change and development that placed in Europe. One of the main reasons for this situation and perhaps most importantly is that the educational concept in the Ottoman Empire remained within a static structure in the last centuries. In particular, the matters such as the madrasa being away from productivity, the limitation of the understanding of the science only with religious sci-ences, has led to the problem of inability to adapt to the rapid transformation that in Europe. The first steps towards eliminating this weakness noticed by the state executives over time has been taken through the improvement and transformation of the Ottoman educational in-stitutions. It is possible to say that the first attempts as to these restructures of education, which is also called as Westernization or modernization by the educational historians, has begun in the period of Sultan III. Selim. In the context of the Nizam-i Cedid movement, a num-ber of positive initiatives in education, such as the improvement of madrasas, the opening of military schools and translation activities, constitute the core of the changes that will take place in later periods. Immediately afterwards, in the period of II. Mahmut, making the read-ing and writing education compulsory, opening of Western-style junior high school, establish-ing medical and vocational schools that provide education at higher education level are con-sidered as positive innovations of the period. The time interval from the proclamation of the Tanzimat edict until the First Constitutional monarchy is the period in which the institution-alization and structuring towards education in the Ottoman Empire is at the highest level. Besides many educational institutions in this process where the ministry responsible for ed-ucation and training is established and the regulation containing the arrangements regarding this field is put into force, one of the most important initiatives made is laying the foundations of the Dar al-Funun (Ottoman University) which is considered as the first university in this land. The fact that many educational institutions established in this period that are the roots of today's educational institutions is important in terms of demonstrating the accuracy of the initiatives within the mentioned period. In Mesrutiyet (the First Constitutional Monarchy) and the subsequent period of Mutlakiyet (Autocracy), contributions were provided on previ-ous positive structuring. However, the social and economic problems experienced in the country since the second half of II. Mesrutiyet (the 2nd Constitutional Monarchy) have been effective in the inability of continuing innovations towards education. In this study, the educational institutions established in the Ottoman Empire before and after the Tanzimat period were discussed. The aim is not just to reveal what these schools are. It was also aimed to emphasize which areas in which schools are required to be based on which needs, which obstacles are encountered during the change of mentality in education, regula-tory activities foreseen to overcome obstacles and to what extent they have been successful. In this regard, the signals of change as to the structure of educational institutions, which could be the source of most of the republic period, started from the beginning of 1700s and contin-ued until World War II period. During this period of more than a hundred years, the political periods related to the structure and functioning of the state have also been influential in the structuring of educational institutions. In fact, the Reorganization (Tanzimat) period, which is known as 'reform' in the mentioned process, is considered as the stage where the change and transformation concerning education is the most. It is seen that the process of westerni-zation still continues even though it is not with the same acceleration in the Constitutional Monarchy and Autocracy periods after the Reorganization period. When looking at the facility of educational institutions in chronological order, it is determined that there is a dominated understanding that prioritizes to train military staff in the military field and to have a compe-tent army with the technological possibilities of the time, in other words, to create a strong defence system against the foreign powers of the country. Indeed, for the first time in order to give technical information about modern military, Hendesehane opened and started to op-erate in Istanbul in 1734 by Mahmut I; Muhendishane-i Bahri-i Humayun, the school of the first military maritime was opened in 1775 in order to provide modern education; Muhendishane-i Berri-i Humayun was founded in 1795 in Istanbul, in order to train artillery and military officer (military engineer); Mekteb-i Harbiye, which was opened in 1835 to train officers, and Mense-i Kuttab-i Askeri, which was established to train military scribes, contrib-uted to the contemporary construction of the army. In the mentioned period, the most im-portant change outside the military area was in the health area. In this sense, in order to meet the medical doctor needs of the army, Tibhane-i Amire was established in 1827. In 1867, the first civilian medical school, Mekteb-i Tibbiye-i Mulkiye, started education and training. An-other important innovation movement for education was in the field of law. In this context, the School Law was established in 1880. In order to train competent staff in administrative staff, the schools of the Mekteb-i Mulkiye, the schools of teacher, the schools that enable women to do education, the improvement of schools that train the clergy and the regulations based on this take attention as educational activities carried out in the mentioned period.

Kandemir, Fatih

The current study aims to examine the hope levels of theology students in the con-text of their education level. The correlational (relational) screening method was used in this study. The sample of the study consists of a total of 429 students (328 girls, 101 boys) stud-ying at the Faculty of Theology at Erzincan Binali Yildirim University. Hope levels of the stu-dents were determined by Karaca-Kandemir Hope Scale developed by Karaca and Kandemir. The scale consists of three sub-dimensions: goal-oriented, hope and significance, and stabi-lity. One-way analysis of variance (ANO-VA) was used for data analysis. According to the fin-dings obtained as a result of the analysis, it is seen that the education levels of the Theology Faculty students cause differentiation in terms of goal-oriented and stability which are sub-dimensions of hope; however, it was found that the scale did not cause any difference in terms of hope and meaningfulness subscale and total hope levels. This finding did not corroborate the research hypothesis that the higher the education level of theology faculty students, the higher their hope level. The results, however, give an idea that theology education can have a positive effect on students' hope levels. Summary: Hope, which is a fundamental feature of human existence, has many functions, both individually and socially. Hope, which is one of the main characteristics that distinguish hu-man beings from other beings, is one of the most powerful tools that help create and imple-ment future designs of individuals and societies. It is possible to see this powerful effect of hope in the object of all human works and actions such as art, literature, and architecture. However, despite the expressed impact of hope, religion, which accompanies it in the existen-tial journey of humanity and is one of its most influential sources of motivation, has the po-tential to produce a highly useful function on hope. Because religion demands the individual to be future-oriented rather than the past. This demand of religion does not mean that the past actions of the individual and society have no importance. While building the future of the individual and society on lessons learned from the past, religion orders that he should not be a prisoner of his past and that he hopes for the energy he has produced by taking shelter in the attributes of Allah, Most Gracious and Merciful. For this reason, the Qur'an equates des-pair of Allah's mercy with coming out of religion (Yusuf 12 / / 87). Despite the strong relations between religion and hope, empirical studies on the issue are not yet adequate. However, in recent times, especially with the effect of Positive Psychology, it is a fact that empirical studies have been carried out to determine the relationship of these emo-tions with religiosity about positive emotions such as patience, optimism, empathy, and self-regulation. One of the positive emotions expressed is hope. However, it is seen that some em-pirical studies have been conducted on the relationship between hope and religiosity. However, apart from these studies, empirical studies on higher education levels are needed in order to reveal the relationship between hope and religiosity in a healthier way. Because of the strong relationship between religion and hope, it is expected that there will be an inc-rease in parallel with the religious education taken in higher education. From this point of view, this study primarily aims to reveal the strong connection between religion and hope. The main problem of this study, which is based on the primary hypothesis that learning reli-gion at a higher education level, will increase the level of hope of students, is the relationship between theology education and hope. In this study, which was conducted to determine the hope levels of the students of the Faculty of Theology, the method of collecting information related to the questionnaire technique used in the screening model was used. The population of the study consists of 744 students enrolled in Erzincan Binali Yildirim Uni-versity Theology Faculty in the fall semester of 2018-2019 academic year. The sample group of the research is 429 students in the faculty during the application period. Accordingly, 144 (33.6%) of the total students in the sample group were in the "preparatory class, " 79 (18.4%) were in the "first grade", and 78 (18.2%) were in the "second grade, " while 60 (14.0%) were in the "third grade, " 68 (15.9%) were in the "fourth grade. " "Personal Data Questionnaire" and "Karaca-Kandemir's Hope Scale" were used as data collec-tion instruments. In the "Personal Data Questionnaire, " there are questions about the learning levels of the working group. Karaca-Kandemir's Hope Scale, which is used in the study, is a scale developed by Karaca and Kandemir based on their cultural codes to determine the hope levels of individuals. The scale is a 5-point Likert type and consists of three sub-dimensions: "goal-oriented, " "hope and meaningfulness, " and "stability. " Of the 13 items in the scale, 8 (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 12) had a positive sentence structure such as "Dreaming about the future excites me, " 5 of them (3, 6, 8, 11 and 13) it has a negative sentence structure such as "I cannot bring the end of a job easily after starting a job. " In the scoring phase of the hope scale, negative sentences were reversed. While the lowest score that can be obtained from the "goal-oriented" dimension of the scale is 5, the highest score is 25; the lowest score that can be obtained from the dimension of "hope and meaningfulness" is 4, the highest score is 20; the lowest score that can be obtai-ned from the "stability" sub-dimension is 4, while the highest score is 20. As a result, the lowest score that can be obtained from the total of the scale is 13, and the highest score is 65. Low scores from the scale indicate that the individual's level of hope is low, and high scores indicate high levels of hope. In order to determine the differentiation between class levels, Single Factor Analysis of Vari-ance-ANOVA was applied to the data set. As a result of the analysis, multiple comparisons were made between the means with statistically significant differences. For this purpose, Post Hoc LSD and Tukey HSD tests were used to determine the source of the difference. The signi-ficance level of ".05 " was taken as a criterion for all these operations. In the research, it was seen that the education they received from the Faculty of Theology students caused a differentiation in the "goal-oriented and stability" sub-dimension of hope; however, "hope and meaningfulness" subscale and "total hope" did not cause any differentia-tion. This result did not confirm the research hypothesis that "the level of hope differs accor-ding to class (education) level and the level of hope increases as the level of education (edu-cation) increases hope. However, in the "goal-oriented" dimension of hope, the second and third-grade students of fourth-grade students; In terms of "stability" dimension, the fact that the first-grade students scored significantly higher than the preparatory class students gives an important idea that the education received in the Faculty of Theology can have an effect on hope. However, it is thought that similar studies that will be conducted with a large sample group and centering on all dimensions and hopes of religiosity will produce remarkable re-sults.

Kandemir, Fatih

The effects of heredity and the environment on the development of human being, which is a multidimensional being, have been discussed for many years. Studies on the religious development of man were also influenced by these discussions. In this context, in order to better understand the nature of religious development, some theories such as behavioral, cognitive or stage theories have emerged. In a sense, these theories have also identified the direction of religious development. However, many of these theories did not address their religious development as a whole. This restricted the understanding of religious development. Therefore, this article has two main purposes. First, to bring the ecological theory which is the human development model proposed by Bronfenbrenner, which considers human development as a whole with the environment and events in which it lives, to the literature of our country's religion psychology. The second aim is that to contribute to a better understanding of the psychological foundations of religious development through the use of this theory. In this article where qualitative research method has been used, some quantitative study data have been used. In the article, the ecosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem, and the effect of each of the chronosystem on religious development is discussed. In this article, it is concluded that approach to religious development in the context of ecological theory can be useful.

Çelik, Ahmet

Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Sanusi (d. 895/1490), who was one of the theologian of later Muslim As'hari theologians, is one of the scholar came to the fore in Maghrib. Although al-Sanusi shapes his thoughts within the As'hari's kalam system, he presents new contributions to this system with his own unique perspective. In particular, his effort to give importance to reason in ma'rifat Allah is remarkable. According to him, ma'rifat Allah can only be reached with reflection (nazar). Also the reflection is wa'z or contexture process done in the reason. When a method is followed, such an reflection leads to the ma'rif Allah. In particular, the ruling wisdom adds a form to the functioning of the reason through its perceived and compassionate perceptions. For a believer to know the necessary, the permissible and the impossible is to use the reason. In this context al-Sanusi imposes a central role in the concept of judgment (hukm). If the human can operates its reason in this way, necessarily will comprehend that he/she is created. In the process of acquiring the knowledge, al-Sanusi draws attention to the heart as much as the reason and that shows that he is in the effort of combining these two.

Çelik, Ahmet

There are some categorical perspectives on the basis of the works that divide the sects into action and faith. A group that stands out among these categories is the Ashari-Shafi'i structure. In order to understand this work, it is necessary to understand first the sources and scholars who feed this structure. We have specified a sample as the method of this article and we tried to examine al-Harrasi in the first place by observing the axis of the Ashari-Shafi'i, but rather the Ashari. In this work we are also in the impressions of his life, we aimed to make a methodical contribution to the understanding of the contemporary Ashari-Shafi'i structure both in the present era by giving some evaluations of the method and baling of al-Harrasi. We have determined the examples we have given about al-Harrasi as the axis of universalism that reflects the main elements of the generally reflecting process and the Kalam. Thus, Harrasi's place in the history of Kalam becomes clearer. We also aimed to give an idea about the muta'akhkhirun period Kalam's foundations that became to mature in his own time.